Kant s Views On Freedom Essay - 1302 Words

In the following paper, I will outline how my understanding of freedom has changed since reading Immanuel Kant’s An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment? Firstly, I will state the views that I held on freedom before I read the text, framing them within a political context by labelling myself as a civil libertarian and explaining what that means. Subsequently, I will provide my interpretation of Kant’s views on freedom through the â€Å"positive† and â€Å"negative† senses and how, for Kant, that there ought to be a distinction between the â€Å"public† and â€Å"private† use of reason, as it constitutes a necessary limit on freedom in order to foster enlightenment. Then, I will outline how Kant’s views on freedom have changed my understanding of freedom, stating that they have only strengthened it, though it has taken on a new degree of nuance as I agree that there ought to be such a distinction between the two uses of reason. I will also disagree with Kant by arguing that the citizenry must have the right to dissolve an authoritarian government, as it is necessary to preserve enlightenment. Finally, I will highlight a paradox that presents itself in Kant’s writings, highlighting it through the contemporary example of Edward Snowden’s disruptive usage of his public reason. Prior to reading the text, my views on freedom were framed around my experience with regards to paying attention to politics. I have always fancied fashioning my own viewpoints on a slew of topics, and freedom isShow MoreRelatedKant And Mill s Views On Freedom And Civil Rights1032 Words   |  5 PagesKant and Mill would disagree in their views of freedom, and civil rights. The former would consider defending liberty and civil rights as a duty one could not break. The latter, on the other hand, would consider liberty and civil rights as valuable inasmuch as they promoted the achievement of some greater good. Thus while Kant would take it as a categorical imperative that one promote freedom and civil rights, in as much as one would want their own freedoms and civil rights to be respected (toRead MoreThe Ideal Ruler Of Kant s Ruler1070 Words   |  5 Pagesquestion in his work The Prince(Machiavelli 8). Centuries later a different view of an ideal ruler was proposed by an Enlighte nment writer, Immanuel Kant. Although Niccolà ² Machiavelli and Immanuel Kant lived 250 years apart, both views have advantages and disadvantages in leading a country, Kant s ruler is a early model of a democratic ruler while Machiavelli s ruler was an ideal model for a absolute monarch. Immanuel Kant s view of an ideal leader is more beneficial to the European society during theRead MoreKant And David Hume Views On The Matter1457 Words   |  6 Pagesreason and feel some sort of emotion. Objectively speaking, there is a no fine line between reasoning and how one feels, however there seems to be a distinct difference between the philosophers Immanuel Kant and David Hume views on the matter. Both are life changing philosophers with very opposing views. One sees the feelings in human nature while the other seems to see nothing but rationality. One can argue both are used but according to these two there is only one or the other dominating the brainRead MoreBroadcasting Corporation s Decision On Broadcast Jerry Springer1685 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction - What I intend to write about In this report, I will be assessing the British Broadcasting Corporation s decision to broadcast Jerry Springer: The Opera back on 8th January 2005. In order to judge the decision, I will be looking at the reasons why the BBC made the decision to air it in 2005. I will be comparing the number of people who complained to the BBC to the total amount of people who watched the broadcast using viewing figures and charts. In addition, I will also look at theRead More Freedom Essay942 Words   |  4 Pagesquot;normalquot; or what everyone is programmed to do. Kant says quot;Can you also will that your maxim should become a universal law.quot;1 In part I agree to the theory of universal law where quot;rationalquot; is judged by universality or what everyone should do. In fact we know that primitive societies were not built on rationality. I believe that we are intrinsically rational and irrational. In my opinion , taking the daouist view, having the ability to be rational and irrational, a hybridRead MoreKantian Ethics And The Categorical Imperative Essay1581 Words   |  7 PagesAnalysis of Kantian Ethics and critiques In Elements of Pure Practical Reason Book, I, Immanuel Kant, a prominent late Enlightenment Era German philosopher discusses his most famous ethical theory, the â€Å"Categorical Imperative.† The â€Å"Categorical Imperative† is a proposed universal law in stating all humans are forbidden from certain actions regardless of consequences. Although this is the general definition of this ethical theory, the Categorical Imperative† exists in two above formulations, A strictRead MoreKant And Sir William David Ross Essay1011 Words   |  5 PagesImmanuel Kant and Sir William David Ross agreed and disagreed about different aspects of ethical practice. Both philosophers had influential views on ethics with strong opinions and interpretations of what moral philosophy is. Part of C.S. Lewis’ Book touches on the notions raised by the philosophers. Positions of Kant and Ross Immanuel Kant was a Rule Nonconsequentialist Theorist who established Duty Ethics. His theory stemmed from the idea of moral absolutism, a theory which believes moral truthsRead MoreKant s View Of Enlightenment1234 Words   |  5 PagesEnlightenment†, he discusses his view of enlightenment and how â€Å"reason† can be brought to the public masses. During the late 17th century, many individuals found it very difficult to break away from their self-incurred tutelage, and often faced a power struggle between one’s individual thought versus how society deems one to think. As a result, it stemmed the Age of Enlightenment, hence the motto – â€Å"dare to know, dare to be wise†. In Kant’s terms, enlightenment is humanity s escape from â€Å"self-imposed ignoranceRead MoreKant And Kant s View On Life And Most955 Words   |  4 Pagesyou need ,your surviving. If you do what you want, your living†. Philosophers Mill and Kant both share similar ities and differences on their view on life and most of all on the meaning of a â€Å"good life. Mill bases morality on the principle of utility which states , that â€Å" actions or behaviors are right in so far as they promote happiness or pleasure , wrong as they tend to produce unhappiness or pain†. While Kant bases morality on the categorical imperative which is, â€Å"an unconditional moral obligationRead MoreHuman Trafficking Is Today s Version Of Slavery873 Words   |  4 Pagessignificance. Immanuel Kant, a philosopher believes in the idea of impartial human beings, argues that each individual should be treated with respect and dignity. In the book, Justice: What’s The Right Thing To Do?, Kant states, â€Å"This capacity to act autonomously is what gives human life its special dignity. It marks but the difference between persons and things. . . respecting human dignity means treating persons and ends in themselves† (Sandel 110). In other words, Kant believes each individual

Comparison Between The Bacchae and The Medea - 1010 Words

In Euripides’ The Bacchae and in the Medea, there are significant binary oppositions in both plays. Binary opposition is the two opposite terms, such as good versus bad. Binary opposition is used to present both sides of a contrast (Marvin, 1). In The Bacchae and the Medea, Euripides used binary opposition to highlight the central themes. The significant binary oppositions that are used are men versus women, foreigner versus citizen, and god versus man. The contrast between men versus women is an important opposition in both plays. The women in the Greek society have no control of their life; the men are in control (Barlow 159). In The Bacchae Dionysus underminded the Greek society point view on women and empowers†¦show more content†¦The binary opposition of man versus woman starts off strong, but Euripides switches the roles in both plays. In The Bacchae the woman worship Dionysus. Pentheus disguises himself as a woman, and goes off to view the women in the mountain s, which is Dionysus plan the whole time. Pentheus dresses up as a woman and admits to wanting to see the women up at the mountains, and this goes against Pentheus’ anger at the beginning of the play (Bacchae 813-814). In the end of the play the women overpower Pentheus and destroy him to pieces (Bacchae 1125-1140). This is an example of the women being controlling of their own actions and being stronger than the men. In Medea the stereotype of the man and the woman switch. Medea is no longer going to sit around and let every man walk all over her; she states in her speech that she will take revenge on everybody that caused her misery (Medea 364-409). Barlow emphasizes on the reversal of the stereotype, stating that Medea, â€Å"is a woman, moreover, who simply refuses to any longer to accept- at any rate Greek- female stereotypes unless to use them with calculation to gain her own immediate ends† (158). Medea reversing the stereotype is the reversal of man controlling the woman, and this shows that woman as well have the power to control their own life. Euripides also highlights how

Huck finn racism Essay Example For Students

Huck finn racism Essay To Be or not To Be In extreme cases the book, Huckleberry Finn, has been banned from some schools because of the depiction of racial tension towards Jim, the black slave, in Huckleberry Finn. This story takes place at a time where slavery was considered moral. Blacks were considered inferior to whites, but Huckleberry challenges the notion that he was raised upon. Through Huckleberry’s adventures Twain expresses his challenge towards civilization’s rules and moral code. One must read between the lines and reach for the meaning in Mark Twain’s subtle literature dialog. If one were to do this that one would realize that it is not racist, but anti-slavery. For someone to think that Twain considering the era was racist would ludicrous. Considering that Mark Twain is a revolutionary writer and must use detail from an era to make the story unique he shouldn’t be considered racist. Their time period is set around the Civil War which was fought for abolishment of slavery. Huck to some people would be the argument for Twain’s racism, but Huck was raised from a boy by people with extreme hatred towards blacks such like Pap and Miss Watson. Even if bigotry was part of Huck’s attitude towards blacks it should be excused. Towards the end of the novel Huck encounters Aunt Sally who makes a remark towards blacks. She remarked that thank god no one was hurt but it was okay if a black person was. This is just a fine example of the extremities that Huck was raised under and the society’s views towards blacks. Twain is merely revealing the harsh truth of society in a subtle tone. It is also important to remember that Mark Twain’s description of Jim was not being racist but honest. Back in their era majority of black slaves were non-educated, ignorant, never allowed independence, and were maltreated. Twain was merely using the historical accuracy to his advantage in the novel for a heightened impact. Since Huck is the center piece of the novel people could say that Mark Twain expressed himself through the character. They would use the fact Huck was degrading Jim. As I have said Huck was raised that way from a child, but he evolved to different beliefs. In the beginning after Huck and Jim have run away they find each other. Huck’s first step to overcoming prejudice occurs on that island. Huck feels relief that he is no longer alone and needs Jim for comfort. You start to see a bond form which never forms between man and his property. This may not be a gigantic step but it is a step. As the story unfold farther they form a rather special bond of needing each other which shows strong when Jim is auctioned off. He decides to save Jim which is totally unheard of for a white to do for a black. At first he challenges his views of religion whether or not he should write Miss Watson, his owner, and probably still lose Jim for good, or go for Jim himself. Huck decides that he would rather be damned to hell than lose Jim, so he tears up the note a journeys forward. Huck challenged society’s views which damns himself to kissing boot heels or humiliation for helping a slave. Huck evolved from sivilized boy to an unsivilized or non-racist boy. The society’s values and views are an important factor in this novel. They are brought out to show the horrible society which we once embraced. Huck goes through a complete metamorphosis and stops accepting their values. In a very satirizing and subtle manner Twain tell the reader not to be racist, not to advocate racism, but to challenge society’s beliefs which they accepted.

Women In The Labour Force Essays - Sexism, Economy, Labour Economics

Women In The Labour Force December 17, 1992 The past decades their has been a dramatic increase of women participating in the labour force from countries all over the world including Canada. In 1950, one Canadian worker in five was a woman. By 1980 this percentage had doubled, and women are expected to make up more than 44 percent of the labour force by the end of this century. The increase in female participation started occurring during the 1970's. This increase also caused the largest baby boom that the Canadian female labour force had ever witnessed. In North America it is common for women to have part-time or summer jobs, and the participation rate of teenage girls is high. It is also mostly high throughout the world in places as United Kingdom because of the fewer women going to school. But in places like France, Italy, and Japan the female participation rate is very low. In most of the countries the labour force is most participated in the age groups between 20 and 24. The labour force of mature women is very high in Sweden, because of the encouraged day care facilities which also provides the females with legislation that provides them with excellent benefits. In Japan there is a drop in female economic activity, the reason why is it affects their marriage and the care of their only child. An observation of labour force participation rates in Canada show that female rates rose a lot between 1971 and 1981, while the male rate rose unnoticeably. The increase in the female participation rate was found in all age groups except in older women. For women aged 15 to 19 the rate was as almost as high as the men. But the largest increase was in the age group of 25-44 years old, where the rate rose almost 50 percent. This meant that the participation rates of the females had become more alike with the men. Family status also influenced the female participation rate but later on during 1981 it had a more less affect than in 1971. According to statistics just over one quarter of married women with young children were working, but this later changed and grew by 76 percent over the a 10 year period of time. The rate also showed an increase of 47 percent for widowed, divorced, and separated women with children. However single women with young children showed a slight decrease. However the female participation rate is not so much related to family status as today as it was many years ago. During the period of 1971 through 1981 the involvement of married women went through a major change. Fewer women saw marriage as a r eason to interrupt their participation in the job force, and couple tended to postpone having children or not having any at all. While women with young children tended to participate less in the labour market and quit their jobs more frequently than men. Females did the exact opposite of what men did when they had children while working, and in some cases were actually more stable than men without children. This showed that the couples attitude towards having children influenced a decrease in the female labour force participation rate. In 1981 most women spent an average of 1,247 hours a year working, compared with 1,431 hours in 1971 which had dropped about 15 percent. Even men saw their average hours decrease by 13 percent. Not only more women were working, more were working part-tim for only part of the year which meant more women on the unemployment rolls. In the 1960's the unemployment rate for females was 3 percent and ten years later increased to 7 percent. Since june 1982 th e unemployment rate for men was 11-13 percent and the women's just above that rate which could also exceed that of the men near the end of the century. Only about 11 percent of women had part-time jobs because they couldn't find full-time employment or because they wished to spend more time to their education or their families, or for other reasons. Although 24 percent of the women working part-time would have preferred a full-time job if it had been available. According

essay on colonies essays

essay on colonies essays The New England and Southern Colonies were both settled largely by the English. By 1700, the regions had evolved into two distinct societies. The southern colonies have characteristics that are the antithesis of the New England colonies attributes. New England was colonized for Freedom of Worship and freedom of political thought. The Southern colonies were developed for freedom of economic opportunity. The New England colonies had aspirations for a distinct society, where they could show their homeland, how a country should be run. The southern colonies had goals for mercantilism, and increasing the prosperity of England. The New England colonies were based on theocracy, where the state forced the people to live and worship in an orthodox way. The southern colonies(Virginia) had a government based on a royal government, where the state was governed by a governor and council named by the king, and an elected assembly chosen by the people. Finally, the New England colonies wanted to establish the colony for religious motives, while the southern colonies were established England and the rebels of England (Pilgrims), made up the New England and southern colonies. "God Almighty in his most holy and wise providence hath so disposed of the condition of mankind, in all times some must be rich, some poor, some high and eminent in power and dignity, other mean and in subjection. Yet we must be knit together in this work as one man."(John Winthrop, A Model of Christian Charity) This statement by John Winthrop, demonstrates importance of religion in the lives of the New England settlers. "We must delight in each other, make others' conditions our own, rejoice together, mourn together, labor and suffer together, always having before our eyes our commission and community in the work, our community as ...

How to Get Into Business School

How to Get Into Business School Not everyone gets accepted into their business school of choice. This is especially true of individuals who apply to top business schools. A top business school, sometimes known as a first tier business school, is a school that is highly ranked among other business schools by multiple organizations. On average, fewer than 12 out of every 100 people who apply to a top business school will receive an acceptance letter. The higher ranked a school is, the more selective they tend to be. For example, Harvard Business School, one of the best-ranked schools in the world, rejects thousands of MBA applicants each year. These facts are not meant to discourage you from applying to business school - you cant be  accepted if you dont apply - but they are meant to help you understand that getting into business school is a challenge. You will have to work hard at it and take the  time to prepare your MBA application and improve your candidacy if you want to increase your chances of getting accepted to your school of choice.    In this article, were going to explore two things that you should be doing right now to prepare for the MBA application process as well as common mistakes that you should avoid in order to increase your chances of success. Find a Business School That Fits You There are many components that go into a business school application, but one of the most important things to focus on right from the start is targeting the right schools. Fit is essential if you want to get accepted into an MBA program. You can have outstanding test scores, glowing recommendation letters, and fantastic essays, but if you arent a good fit for the school you are applying to, you will most likely get turned away in favor of a candidate who is a good fit. Many MBA candidates start their search for the right school by looking at  business school rankings. Although rankings are important - they give you a great picture of the schools reputation - they are not the only thing that matters. To find a school that is a fit for your academic ability and career goals, you need to look beyond rankings and into the schools culture, people, and location. Culture: Business school culture is an important factor because it dictates the environment. Some schools have a close-knit, collaborative culture; others have a more competitive culture that encourages self-sufficiency. You need to ask yourself what kind of student you are and what type of environment you are most likely to thrive in.People: You will be spending a lot of time with the people in your incoming class. Would you prefer a large class or small intimate classes? And what about the professors? Do you want to be taught by people who value research or do you want professors who focus on application?Location: Cost of living, weather, proximity to family, networking opportunities, and internship availability are all affected by the location of your business school. A big city will likely come with more opportunities, but it may also be more expensive to study in this type of environment. A small college town or a rural setting could be more affordable, but may provide fewer opp ortunities for networking and culture. Find Out What the School Is Looking For Every business school will tell you that they work hard to build a diverse class and that they dont have a typical student. While that may be true on some level, every business school has an archetypical student. This student is almost always professional, business-minded, passionate, and willing to work hard to achieve their goals. Beyond that, every school is different, so you need to understand what the school is looking for to ensure that 1.) the school is a good fit for you 2.) you can deliver an application that fits their needs. You can get to know the school by visiting the campus, speaking to current students, reaching out to the alumni network, attending MBA fairs, and conducting good old-fashioned research. Seek out interviews that have been conducted with the schools admission officers, peruse the schools blog and other publications, and read everything you can about the school. Eventually, a picture will begin to form that shows you what the school is looking for. For example, the school may be looking for students who have leadership potential, strong technical abilities, the desire to collaborate, and an interest in social responsibility and global business. When you find that the school is looking for something you have, you need to let that piece of you shine in your  resume, essays, and recommendations. Avoid Common Mistakes Nobody is perfect. Mistakes happen. But you don’t want to make a silly mistake that makes you look bad to an admissions committee. There are a few common mistakes that applicants make time and time again. You might scoff at some of these and think that you would never be careless enough to make  that mistake, but keep in mind that the applicants who made these mistakes probably thought the same thing at one time. Recycling essays. If you are applying to multiple schools (and you should), it is important to write an original essay for each application. Dont recycle your MBA application essays. Admissions committees can spot this trick from a mile away. And if you do disregard this advice and decide to recycle the essay, remember to change the name of the school in the essay. Believe it or not, applicants make this mistake every year! If you submit an essay to Columbia explaining why you want to go to Harvard, the admissions committee will peg you as someone who doesn’t pay attention to detail - and theyll be right to do so.Not Sharing. Admissions committees look through a lot of essays every year. This can be extremely boring - especially when the essays are generic. The point of the essay is to help admissions committees get to know you, so let your personality shine. Demonstrate who you are. It will help your application.Skipping Optional Opportunities. Some business schools have opti onal essays or optional interviews. Dont make the mistake of skipping these optional opportunities. Show the school that you want to get in. Do the essay. Do the interview. And take advantage of every other opportunity that comes your way. Not Retaking the GMAT. GMAT scores are important to your application. If your scores arent falling in the range for the previous years entering class, you should retake the GMAT to get a better score. The Graduate Management Admission Council reports that approximately one-third of the people who take the GMAT take it at least twice, if not more. Most of these people increase their score the second time around. Be one of those people.

Principles of Microeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Principles of Microeconomics - Essay Example The limitations need to be worked upon so that sanity could prevail within the related domains. The limits and constraints that make it so hard to achieve include the fact that man has at times over-utilized these resources which has made them scant. The limitations have come about with the passage of time and need to be analyzed and researched upon properly within the future. 2. A big debate in both politics and economics is the extent to which the government should be involved in stabilizing the economy through taxing and spending measures. Do you think that government is involved too much, too little, or just enough these days? The role of the government within the taxing and spending measures is a bit too much. It should work upon making sure that the goals and objectives of its very basis are being handled well more than anything else. This will resolve a number of disputes and long standing issues within the relevant scheme of things. The economic role should be allotted to the people who can do the best possible jobs. This could even include the relevant departments and units which are specialized to undertake such tasks and activities. This will make sure that the taxing and spending measures are being amicably taken care of within any nation of the world. 3. Over the past several years, prices for personal computers and related computer equipment have fallen dramatically, but suppliers have offered more and more of them for sale. Does this refute the law of supply? Explain how this situation may have occurred in the market for personal computers. The supply and demand philosophy banks on the more the customers buy over a period of time, the demand goes up and the supply becomes lesser. This is vice versa in the case of the supply being more and demand being less, and hence the price variations are very direct and have a long-lasting consequence. The law of supply has not been refuted under such a situation as there is an overall increase in the wake of understanding the supply and demand of personal computers and computer related equipment. The situation has come about in the wake of the personal computers because people have relied more on laptops and hence the price ranges of the personal computers have come down considerably. 4. Discuss this statement: "Health care is too expensive. The government should limit the prices doctors charge so that everyone can afford health care." It is a fact that the price of health care has crossed the limits. This is the reason why doctors have been able to make big bucks out of the related settings that the patients find themselves engulfed within. The role of the government under such situations is of immense significance. This is because the government has to wrest its initiatives more than anything else. It needs to make sure that the health care is reasonably priced and is not too costly for the poor and needy. In fact, the people should receive it free of cost as health is essential oneà ¢â‚¬â„¢s priority number one. The prices that these doctors charge is just too much and the affordability aspect is an important consideration that must be taken into proper perspectives before one can suggest that the health care is not expensive any more. 5. You hear a candidate for the United States Congress state that a tax on corporate stocks is an equitable way for the government to raise revenue, because it only affects the very wealthy. Evaluate this statement. The United States C

Reasons for the Failure of Camp David of 2000 Essay

Reasons for the Failure of Camp David of 2000 - Essay Example It was aimed to eradicate the conflict involving Israel and Palestine. These two countries have been in conflict for an incredibly long time. Israel is composed of both Muslims and Christians while Palestine is an Arab only state. The summit was a continuation of the peace development that had been started by former United States president Carter. This paper will expand on the issues that led to the failure of Camp David in 2000 and what had caused the conflicts. Nature of the Failure of Camp David The summit meant to discuss many issues that hindered the development of the peace procedure and included territory, Jerusalem, refugees and security worries by Israel. In relation to territory, the Palestinian authorities demanded that they should be awarded with full power over some areas such as the Gaza strip, which was being controlled by Israel1. Israel disputed that the area belonged to them, and rejected their proposals. The prime minister of Israel instead offered them the access to the areas under conflict but insisted that they were still under the government of Israel. He additionally explained that the roads to be used were still under Israel and the Palestinians would be deprived of their use in case there was an emergency. The Palestinian leader rejected Israel’s whole idea since they had wanted complete ownership of the land2. This is one issue why they never solved their conflict on territorial borders. They further discussed on the territorial conflict that concerned Jerusalem. Palestinians claimed complete ownership of the east of Jerusalem and the holy cities that were nearby including Temple Mount. Amusingly, both Israel and Palestine referred to temple mount as holy grounds, considering that Judaism and Islam are involved. Palestine claimed that the land on the east of Jerusalem was ‘stolen’ by Israel and that they should return it to the rightful owner. The Israeli leader argued that if the land belonged to Palestine, they w ould still be having it since countries should always protect their possessions. In an attempt to solve this problem, Israel suggested that Palestine be granted with custodianship and not complete ownership of the area in conflict (Temple Mount)3. Israel however claimed that the ancient wall on the temple mount would belong to them since it was very an important icon in Judaism. Israel also suggested that some Muslim environs in the east of Jerusalem would be part of Palestine while others would still be under the control of Israel. It happens that Palestinians had wanted full control of all the Muslim neighborhoods and sought for an explanation why Israel would no grant them full sovereignty. They did not desire Israel to have power over the holy Arab cities in any manner and therefore could not come into a viable conclusion. Another reason for the summit was the issue of refugees. These refugees came to being because of war that made some Palestinians to escape from Israel into th e neighboring Palestine. Palestine wanted the refugees to go back to their original homes in Israel without being asked and that they should be granted with land. Israel rejected because they were millions of them and they would make the country be overpopulated and limit the resources. Large populations have high demand for resources and lead to their degradation since they can never be enough. Israel stated that they would only permit the immigrants who had families left in Israel after the war period was over. This amounted to about 100,000 refugees4. This did not favor the Palestinians, as they wanted the refugees to decide where they wanted to be, Israel or Palestine. It was evident that a large number would prefer to relocate to Israel. It was also decided that

Historical Terms Essay Example for Free

Historical Terms Essay The Agricultural Revolution was also known as the Neolithic Revolution which occurred around roughly 10,000 B. C. It was a revolution that involved the transformation hunting-gathering societies into establishing permanent settlements and resort to agriculture and domestication. Hence, it initiated the development of civilization. The Cuneiform was probably the earliest form of writing upon which the Sumerians established in the Mesopotamian area, as their civilization started to proliferate, around 3000 B. C. It was said to have lasted for a few thousand years and while its use proliferated, the number of characters that it contained gradually dwindled to a more manageable standard. The Ziggurat was a temple tower which the Sumerians established that existed during Ancient Mesopotamia—almost quite similar to the temples of Ancient America. There were established monuments for the local regions of Ancient Mesopotamia. It was basically a pyramidal structure with a top flat—a platform that served as a shrine or temple. It was elevated to several levels (around two to seven tiers as suggested). The Code of Hammurabi was an ancient law-code (set of society’s rules) which was created in Babylon around 1800-1700 B. C. It was also enacted by Babylon’s sixth king, Hammurabi, upon which the code’s name was derived from. It is just one of the several set of fundamental laws found in the Near East to Middle East—area of Ancient Mesopotamia. Moses is a well-known biblical figure that exists in an array of religions. He was a Hebrew prophet who delivered the Hebrews from Egyptian Slavery and towards the Promised Land which was Israel; although, it was said that he died before he reached Israel. He was well-known for the ten plagues of Egypt that forced the Pharaoh—his stepbrother—into freeing the Hebrews. He was later known for the Ten Commandments. Amenhotep IV was the 10th or 11th Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, reigning around 1300 B. C. It was suggested that he reigned around 1353 to 1336 B. C. He was also known as Akhenaten. In relation to his name, he was noted to have obliged the population into accepting monotheism, the worship of Aten. He was not really the heir to the throne, at least not until his older brother’s (Crown Prince Thutmose) death. Hatshepsut was the fifth pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, reigning from 1479 to 1458 B. C. She was known as the longest ruling female pharaoh of Egypt; although, it was known in some historic sources that her reign was co-regent and that it was entailed in the reign of Thutmose III. Her most notable achievement was probably the establishment of trade networks in Egypt which apparently brought in wealth for the 18th Dynasty. Zoroastrianism is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of Zoroaster or Zarathustra, which can be traced in ancient Persia. It is considered as one of the world’s first monotheistic faith, as it exalted Ahura Mazda.. It was believed that many concepts of the three major religions were derived from the scriptures of Zoroastrianism; one of which is the belief on a universal God. Manichaeism was considered as one of the major Gnostic religions of ancient Persia. It said to have existed from the third to the seventh centuries, from as far as China to the Roman Empire. It received prosecutions from other religious cultures such as Buddhism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. Its main prophet was Mani who lived in Babylon. Its major concept described the struggle between light and darkness (good and evil). Cyrus the Great was a Persian King who established the Persian Empire under the Achaemenid dynasty, reigning from around 600 to 530 B. C. He started to build his empire by first fighting the Median Empire, then the Lydian Empire, and finally the Neo-Babylonian Empire. He also led his armies into Central Asia and died in a battle against the Scythians before reaching Egypt. It was mentioned that he respected the cultures of the lands he conquered. Hence, this made him a successful emperor to the eyes of his people. Herodotus was a Greek historian who lived around the fifth century B. C. In the Western world, he was known as the father of history. He was the first to apply systematic collection of evidences and data. He usually writes about information regarding the nature of the world and the different sciences, as he would inform people in a narrative way. Sophocles lived from 496 to 406 B. C. and was notably an ancient Greek Tragedian. Luckily, he was one of those Tragedians whose work survived long enough for the modern world to see. His most famous works, which concerned Oedipus and Antigone, have been tackled in schools worldwide. He was also the most-awarded playwright in Athens. Hippocrates lived from 460 to 370 B. C. He was known as one of the most astounding figures of Medicine. He was also known as the Father of Medicine, having established the Hippocratic School of medicine that apparently revolutionized Ancient Greek medicine, which enabled medicine to become a known and necessary profession. The Persian Wars is a series of a Greco-Persian conflicts that arose in 499 B. C. , lasting until around 448 B. C. It was basically the two Persian invasions of Greece which the Greek Alliance successfully repelled. It defined Greek dominance over the Persians. Homer was an Ancient Greek writer that created the epic poems, Illiad and Odyssey. His existence remained controversial as it was yet to be discovered. However, many believed that he existed during the time of the Trojan War, around 1194 to 1184 B. C. , which was the core setting of Illiad. Sophists were basically Ancient Greek teachers of writing, speech, and rhetoric that traveled across the country during the fifth century B. C. A growing demand for education during this century paved the way to the establishment of a class of teachers and professionals that scattered all over Greece in order to educate people. Socrates was a well-known Classical Greek Philosopher that lived from 469 to 399 B. C. He was known to be one of the founders of Western Philosophy, especially his contributions to the field of ethics; through his most comprehensive accounts, the Plato’s dialogues. He was put to trial and executed by forcing him to drink poison and walking around the city. Sparta was a Greek city-state, renowned for its military dominance over its region in Greece. It was established as the rival of the Athenians—during the Peloponnesian war. As a requirement of the governing body, all Spartan men were full-time soldiers, especially during the time of War. Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher that lived from 384 to 322 B. C. He was a student of Plato, who later on became the teacher of Alexander the Great of Macedonia. He was also known as one of the Greek philosophers that established the foundations of Western Philosophy (other than Plato and Socrates). Galen of Pergamum was a Roman physician and apparently a Greek philosopher that lived from 129 to 200 A. D. He was known to be the most accomplished physician during the Roman era. His philosophies and theories influenced and dominated much of Western Medical Science. Archimedes was a Greek inventor that lived during 287 to 212 B. C. , known for his theories and foundations on hydrostatics. He was also regarded for his inventions which included an array of siege engines and equipments, and the screw pump, later known as the Archimedes screw. Pax Romana, also known as Pax Augusta, was a long period of relative peace that Rome experienced during the first and second centuries A. D, around 27 B. C. to 180 A. D. It was proclaimed by Caesar Augustus, and it suggested that Rome would go under a period of peace and non-expansion; with generals being recalled after their victories. It met its end at the death of Marcus Aurelius. Diocletian was the emperor of Roman from 284 to 305 A. D. The end of the third century crisis in Rome was signaled by the ascension of Diocletian to the seat of power. He refurbished the empire by separating and enlarging the empire’s civil and military services, assigning three other leaders to control different regions. This was probably the largest and most bureaucratic government in Roman history. Virgil was a classical Roman poet who lived during 70 to 19 B. C. He was known for his three major works: the Bucolics, the Georgics, and the Aeneid—which became Rome’s national epic. Born to a farmer who later lost their land to soldiers, he engaged in farm work and studied poetry. His first two major works were said to have been influenced by rural life. Claudius Ptolemaeus was a Greco-Roman astronomer who lived from 90 to 168 A. D, living in Egypt which was under Roman control. He was an author of several discourses including the Almagest (astronomical discourse), the Geography (knowledge of Greco-Roman world), and Apolotelesmatika (astrological discourse). Titus Lucretius Carus was a Roman Philosopher-poet who lived around 99 to 55 B. C. Although not much was known of him, he was renowned for his major epic Philosophical poem known as De rerum natura, or translated as On the Nature of Things. He dedicated this to his friend, Gaius Memmius. It was said that the poem’s purpose was to free Gaius’ mind of superstition, as well as the fear of death. Octavian was the successor of Gaius Julius Caesar, after the latter was brutally murdered. He ruled from 27 B. C to 14 A. D. wherein he died. He became the first emperor of the Roman Empire, after it was formally established that a sole person would rule the Republic in accordance with the Senate. His rule also initiated the enactment of Pax Romana. Peter was the proclaimed leader of the early Christian church and was one of the apostles of Jesus Christ. He was a simple fisherman that Jesus assigned to take up a leadership role amongst the other disciples and apostles. At the time of Nero, the Christians were prosecuted and with him being the first pope of Christianity, he was nailed to the cross facing downwards and burned in Rome. Paul was a Hellenistic Jew and was referred to as the Apostle to the gentiles. His conversion took place on his way to Damascus when he envisioned a resurrected Jesus Christ, which later on temporarily blinded him. Unlike the rest of Jesus’ apostles, Paul only saw Jesus Christ through his visions and was unfortunate to have not known him in person. Like Peter, he was executed by Nero through beheading. The New Testament is the second major division of the bible wherein the story of Jesus Christ can be read. It contained the gospels upon which shared the life of Jesus Christ and the proliferation of the Christian church. It also contained the book of revelations which was the apocalyptic prophecy. Constantine I, also known as Constantine the Great, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 306 up to his death on 337 A. D. He experienced his conversion into Christianity on the battlefield. With him as a Christian convert, he reversed the prosecutions laid out by his predecessors and established the Edict of Milan in 313 A. D. , which stated religious toleration throughout the Roman empire. St. Augustine of Hippo was a philosopher and a theologian, as well as the Bishop of Hippo Regius, who lived around 354 to 430 A. D. He was born in Thagaste. He was also regarded as one of the most important Christian figures who helped in the proliferation of Christianity. His thoughts influenced the medieval worldview, the medieval Christian church. The Arians were the followers of a religion called Arianism which was established in 250-336 A. D. by a Christian priest known as Arius. Arians were branded as heretics by the Christian church, thus leading to their execution or excommunication. However, the religion and its followers still continued onwards through the medieval ages. The Justinian Code was summoned by Emperor Justinian himself and his desire to create a single set of laws, or â€Å"code,† which contained the different laws enacted by past emperors from the reign of Hadrian up to his rule. The older laws and codex were updated to fit the standards of Emperor Justinian’s reign. The first part of the law was completed on 529 A. D. Byzantium, known today as Istanbul, was an ancient Greek city established by Greek colonists, naming it after King Byzas. The name was actually Latinized from Byzantion. It became the capital of the Byzantine Empire, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and renamed to Constantinople. Later on, the Ottomans laid siege of Constantinople and took over the city. It was then changed to Istanbul when Turkey was established. The Koran is the most important text of Islam; much like the Christian bible. It was believed to be a book of divine guidance for mankind to follow. It was mentioned that the Koran was revealed to the prophet Muhammad by Jibril (an Islam version of Gabriel). The Koran was also believed to have been written by Muhammad and his followers, through the transcription oral transmissions. It was compiled in 633 A. D. and was standardized in 653 A. D. under the Islamic Empire. The Hagia Sophia was a mosque but later turned into a Museum which can be found in the city of Istanbul in Turkey. It was highly considered as the epitome of Byzantine architecture, as it was established as a patriarchal basilica at that time. For nearly a thousand years, it was considered as the largest cathedral in the world. When the Ottomans conquered Constantinople, it was converted into a mosque. Theodora was the empress of the Byzantine Empire during the sixth century A. D. and the wife of Emperor Justinian I as the emperor of the Byzantine Empire. She was regarded as a saint of the Orthodox Church. She was also known as the most influential woman in the history of Byzantine. Feudalism was an established political system during the medieval ages in Europe, as well as the rest of the world. Three key elements revolve around Feudalism: lords, vassals, and fiefs. The Lords control the land and provide protection for it. The vassals establish a contract with the controlling monarch, ensuring the protection of the land and his property. The fiefs are profitable lands that could gain revenue for the kingdom. Charlemagne was the established King of the Franks who reigned from 768 A. D. up to his death in 814 A. D. He united the Frankish kingdoms and expanded into Western and Central Europe, establishing an empire. Later on, he conquered Italy and was crowned by Pope Leo III as Imperator Augustus, and became a rival of the Byzantine Emperor sitting on Constantinople. During his reign, the empire experienced Carolingian Renaissance which was the revival of art, culture, and religion through the medium of the Church. Alcuin of York lived from 735 to 804 A. D. in York, Northumbria. At the request of Charlemagne, he became a teacher in the Carolingian court, which focused on the revitalization of art, culture, and religion through the medium of the Church. He composed many theological doctrines, as well as a notable number of literary works like poems. He was inducted as the abbot of Saint Martin’s at Tours in 796 A. D. , until his death. Clovis I was the first king of the Franks brought Christianity to the Franks and aimed to unite the Frankish kingdoms under one ruler. Instead of remaining as an Arian Christian which was very common to the Germanic tribes, he converted to Catholic Christianity and brought this to his people. He was baptized near Rheims wherein the succeeding kings would be crowned as King of France. Serfs were people belonging to the lowest class in the feudal system of medieval Europe which was Serfdom. Basically, they were slaves to serf lords and were tasked to till the lands. They had no freedom and only had barely enough to feed themselves. They do not own the lands they till. Rollo was the first ruler of the Viking principality in Northern France, later known as Normandy. He lived from 860 to 932 A. D. He invaded France in 885 A. D. , and was considered as one of Sigfred’s Viking Fleet’s minor leaders. He was defeated by King Charles the small of France and later gave him the northern area of France with the condition that he would defend the French Kingdom from other Viking raiders. The Magna Carta is an English charter that was issued in 1215 A. D. It gave noblemen certain rights. It also required people to respect legal procedures, and accept that the person’s freedom could be dully bound by law. It also protected the King’s subjects from unlawful imprisonment. Basically, it was made by noblemen to somewhat limit the powers of the King, in order to avoid Tyranny over the kingdom. William the Conqueror or William I was the King of England from 1066 up to his death in 1087 A. D. He was known as William the Bastard because of his illegitimate birth. Along with his men, he fought against the English at the Battle of Hastings and won. As King, he made a lot of major reforms in the English administrative system.

Macbeth - How Fate Disappointed Essay -- Macbeth Destiny Fate Free Wi

How Fate Disappointed in Macbeth      Ã‚   How forceful was fate in the venerable Shakespearean tragedy Macbeth? Did it deprive either of the Macbeths of their ability to choose? This essay intends to answer these and other fate-related questions.    In his critical volume, Macbeth: a Guide to the Play, H. R. Coursen explains the concept of Fate within the play:    Macbeth's tragedy is not that he decides to kill Duncan but that he cannot become independent. Even if a weaker agency than God, he would be his own, himself alone. But he cannot fight free of his implication in the way things are any more than Lady Macbeth can free herself of its embeddedness in her. The world and all within it must be of a piece if their particular version of destiny is to be acted out. Fate cannot "come . . . into the lyst." Fate is not an option except as it - like "Chance" - is allied with God, a category properly defined as the will of God. (56)    Macbeth: "If Chance would have me king, why, Chance may crown me without my stir." A.C. Bradley in Shakespearean Tragedy references Fate in the play to the Witches' prophecies:    The words of the witches are fatal to the hero only because there is in him something which leaps into light at the sound of them; but they are at the same time the witness of forces which never cease to work in the world around him, and, on the instant of his surrender to them, entangle him inextricably in the web of Fate. (320)    Blanche Coles states in Shakespeare's Four Giants the place of Fate in Macbeth's life:    Then, like a cog slipping naturally into its own notch, his thoughts turn to the Witches and their prophecy, and he concludes that he has defiled his mind for the... ...in Books, 1991.    Coles, Blanche. Shakespeare's Four Giants. Rindge, NH: Richard R. Smith Publisher, Inc., 1957.    Coursen, H. R. Macbeth: a Guide to the Play. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1997.    Frye, Northrop. Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1967.    Knights, L.C. "Macbeth." Shakespeare: The Tragedies. A Collectiion of Critical Essays. Alfred Harbage, ed. Englewwod Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964.    Mack, Maynard. Everybody's Shakespeare: Reflections Chiefly on the Tragedies. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1993.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. http://chemicool.com/Shakespeare/macbeth/full.html, no lin.    Wilson, H. S. On the Design of Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1957.   

Skyrim Review

Scrim Review Arthur Underworld Diver university So you're sitting at home bored for hours on end, and you want something to Just take your mind away from reality and into another world where you can do whatever you as you wish. Well it sounds like you want to play a video game. Actually, it sounds like you want to play Elder Scrolls V: Scrim. This is a review of the popular cross platform video game commonly referred to as Scrim. I give this game a 9. 75 out of 10 for its amazing graphics, fantastic attention to detail, smooth gamely. Underfed harasser development, and of course, fun story line. The game starts with the main character on the verge of getting executed when he is saved by none other then a giant fire-breathing dragon. You hear from other players that dragons are extinct in this world for centuries. Obviously not. You must decide quickly whether you will escape the burning town with the imperial guard, or with the leader of the rebellion who has recently murdered the ki ng and claims that government is oppressing the natural born peoples to Scrim.This decision is not an important one, but introduces oh to the tact throughout the game you will given choices. Some of which are not simple. Simple this or that choices are prominent, but some are as complicated as do nothing and your reputation will be hindered. You soon find out that you are the dragoon. You have the power of Theme, or voice. You can yell and basically effect the world around you by either doing damage or even become Invisible. The storyline Is complicated and involves twists and plots and quite a lot of dragon killing, and inevitably, dragons killing you.Probably the most annoying part of the game. Eating stuck in a dragon fight that can take some time to finish if your not inept in magic, and all the sudden here comes another dragon, and on a rare occasion, a third or fourth dragon. Leaving you with little ability to defend yourself against an onslaught of dragons that will most like ly leave you burnt too crisp on the side of some road, The Elder Scroll series is famous for their use of the guilds. The Dark Brotherhood, an assassins' guild, the Thieves' Guild, the Fighters' Guild, and the Mages guild are all, as expected, playable in this game.I played through all the guilds this time and am glad to report that there is nothing that leaves you wanting more afterward. Being able to sneak around and play a thief or an assassin, making money and getting rewards beyond compare from regular side quests. Becoming the leader of the Mages guild was particularly rewarding, with a room full of loot and Ingredients that always regret, allowing you to restock on potion Items from hard to find Ingredients in the same room. Character development is particularly exciting In this game. Previous role playing Ames allow stats Increases by overall experience and level ups.In Scrim you level up certain buffs such a health regeneration and a big enough armor rating you can actually level up things like armor by attacking a guard and sitting there and letting the guards attack you. In about an hour your armor rating will be at 99, and you sat back and read your homework the whole time. However with skills like conjuration and lock pick, it's a little harder to level up. Unless you start lock picking, or conjuring monsters early in the game you'll find yourself with a pathetically low level near the ND of the game and needing to make up so many skill levels to level up you main level.This will be very time consuming, especially with the skills I mentioned. The first thing you'll notice about the game, however, is its graphics. Scrim has no cut scenes such as this. All the graphics are designed on the same engine that runs game play. The good and the bad for this you ask? Well loading time can get annoying, but if you download the game to your console then load times are reduced by about half. Rendering graphics can also get glitch. Sometimes an object will appe ar and twitch back and forth stuck on an invisible wall or level.This rarely effects gamely however, so is easily overlooked. Aside from the graphics, the attention to detail in every level of the game is without compare. This is an open world game, which meaner you can travel to any section of the world at any time for any reason. The countryside is full of mountains covered in snow. The valleys are full flowers and plants, all of which are able to be harvested for ingredients to sell/trade or brew potions. Every item you see can be kicked up and sold or used.In the inventory menu you can look at every item specifically, turning it around and zooming in and out as you wish. Overall, the only problems I found with the game was with some glitches, which can be expected in any game of this magnitude. Those glitches are the only reason I didn't give this game a 10/10. This game has a storyline that draws in the player, allowing for expandable play through guilds. It has the best and mo st pleasing graphics yet to date, and a record making attention to detail. It's by far the best RPG Vive played.

Community Essay

Canadian society has often seen itself has having fiduciary responsibility to help those who cannot mend tor themselves. One ot the social groups included in those described as such are the newcomers or those who have migrated into Canada fairly recently. Having left their homelands in search of greener pastures; this paper intends to examine the multiple facets they have to deal with in order to survive in Canada’s highly competitive society. One of the students in the LINC program of Saskatchewan Polytechnic is cited as an example of a person coping with these social Justice issues. Academic acumen is chieved through improved fluency in English in order to help them become productive members of the workforce or to enable them to gain access to university education. Keywords: microcosm, fiduciary, facets, acumen, fluency 3 Definition of Social Justice Terms Buettner-Schmidt; et al (2012) defines social Justice as fair partaking in society with all the benefits and obligations. This gives people a situation seen as equitable standards in life. Qualities seen include fair treatment, equality in distribution of resources, Just social structures, equal chance of human development, and sufficient ealth care opportunity. Employment would be a condition wherein a person has a source of livelihood of a legitimate nature. Income status would be a condition defined as having a considerable amount of money going into a person’s resource base needed to sustain life. Review of Literature Koh et al. (2010) have determined that, â€Å"Specifically, eliminating health disparities will require heightened emphasis on translating and disseminating proven interventions in a way that will reach all people, irrespective of social class or racial and ethnic background. It will also require transcending the confines of academia to reach and influence broader real-world settings (paragraph 4). † This article from the American Journal of Public Medicine views social Justice as a method by which health inequities should be corrected by using proven and time-tested techniques. It also encourages dissemination of resources regardless of social, racial, or cultural background. This article also envisions social Justice advocacy beyond the academe and into society as a whole. 4 Gostin, L et al. 2006) describes social Justice such that: â€Å"A core insight of social ustice is that there are multiple causal pathways to numerous dimensions of disadvantage. These include poverty, substandard housing, poor education, unhygienic and polluted environments, and social disintegration. These and many other causal agents lead to systematic disadvantage not only in health, but also in nearly every aspect ot social, economic, and political lite (paragraph 6). à ¢â‚¬  This tells us that lack of social Justice can be seen within the context of an inequitable chance of having good healthcare. This problem is connected to other issues of deprivation uch as lack of education, poverty, living in dilapidated housing in inner city areas, and thriving in unhygienic surroundings. In essence how can a person avail of proper health care if he or she is uneducated, lives in a ghetto or slum area, or if he or she is living in abject deprivation with no sustainable source of income? Nevertheless there are those that view social Justice in health care using different parameters. According to Scambler, G (201 1); â€Å"Both material and psychosocial factors contribute to these differences and their effects extend to most diseases and causes of death. Disadvantage has many forms and may be absolute or relative. It can include having few family assets, having a poorer education during adolescence, having insecure employment, becoming stuck in a hazardous or dead-end Job, living in poor housing, trying to bring up a family in difficult circumstances and living on an inadequate retirement pension (paragraph 16). This article views lack of social Justice resulting in a life with a poor standard of health as a mere effect of previous injustices committed on a person who lives in dire poverty. If a person comes from several enerations of a poor family, inadequate education leading to having a minimum wage Job, or if a person lives in a community that has no social support then most likely that person cannot participate in an equitable health care system. Using Social Justice Tools to Assess Economic Conditions of Newcomers in to Canada 5 Discussion Nursing student volunteers are facing a challenge when thinking of social Justice principles when doing volunteer work in the LINC program. Issues such as employment, working conditions, income, and social status may be seen as emotionally charged and can cause an uncomfortable feeling. The nursing student volunteer must learn to broaden his or her horizon when dealing with health determinants such as employment situation or income disparity. Even in developed nations such as Canada a new immigrant may feel marginalized if a person is not given the chance to have access to proper social services. While volunteering in the LINC program of Saskatchewan Polytechnic; one would determine that student volunteers need an opportunity to work with social Justice tools with guidance of members of the academe. The LINC student that is cited as an example relative to this study is AM, male, 37 ears old, and he was from the Philippines.

Alfred Adlers individual psychology

Alfred Adlers individual psychology Major Principles of the Theory In his work of developing classical Adlerian psychology, Adler emphasized seven major principles which include; utility of the individual. According to this principle things like feeling, thinking, behaviors and emotions can only be understood well if considered as being subordinates of one’s lifestyle. â€Å"People are neither divided internally nor battleground of forces that conflict each other but every concept of individuality heads in the same direction† (Shultz, Shultz, 2009: 97).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Alfred Adlers individual psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The principle of goal holds that â€Å"there exist a single dynamic of personality originating from growth as well as forward motion of life by itself† (Slavik King, 2007). This personality is named future oriented, always striving to achieving an objective which is import ant, successful or even much powerful. Putting this aspect in mental health, it can be realized that the objective is real for social significance or superiority as compared to the general difficulties. Now putting the concept in mental disorder, Dreikurs stated that; [It is unrealistic goal of exaggerated significance or superiority over others. Early childhood feeling of inferiority in which one aim to compensate leads to the creation of a fictional final goal which subjectively seems to promise future security and success] (Dreikurs, 1935:72). It explains that, the real meaning of feelings that are inferior is one that controls the level at which the goal wants to attain in the long run becomes the route upon which behavior patterns follows. When explaining the principle of self-determination along with uniqueness, Adler emphasized that there are factors which influence goals and such factors may include, hereditary as well as cultural factors. However, the goal at the end origin ates from the individual’s creative powers which ultimately make it much unique. In most cases people do not understand or even don’t know what their goals are. Another principle is social context that holds â€Å"As an indivisible whole, a system, the human being is also a part of larger wholes or systems the family, the community, all of humanity, our planet and the cosmos† (Shultz, Shultz, 2009: 212). By looking at it in this perspective then there are three tasks of life namely; love, sex and occupation. However in the process of accomplishing these tasks, life is faced with a social challenge which entails the process of relating with others. The ways through which people respond to their first social systems, the constellation of families, in one way or the other might end up being the prototype of their world perspective as well as their life attitude (Slavik King, 2007). Community’s feeling forms the fifth principle and holds that;Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More [Everybody has the capacity for learning to live in harmony with the society. This forms innate potential for social connectedness which develops consciously. Social interests and feelings imply ‘social improvement,’ different from conformity and leaving space for social innovation through cultural resistance] (Shelley King, 2008:97). Mental Health principle states that â€Å"feelings of human connectedness and a willingness to develop oneself fully and contribute to the welfare of others are the main criteria of mental health†, (Dreikurs, 1935:45). In case such qualities have not yet developed fully there are higher chances of inferiority feelings haunting an individual. In other words there exists the likelihood of superiority attitude antagonizing others. As a result the fictional objective that is unconscious might end u p becoming self-centered as well as being emotionally explosive towards other people. In case the connectednesses along with the willingness of making contribution are much stronger then, there exists the likelihood of equality. As an effect the person’s objective will be self transcending and of much importance to others. Treatment forms the last principle; it explains that people have to overcome their insecurity feelings by developing real connectedness feelings, apart from ensuring that their significance striving is directed and socially fruitful. By the use of a Socratic kind of communication that can be considered as being respectful, people are in one way or the other given a task of correcting assumptions, behaviors, attitudes as well as feelings that are mistaken about themselves and the entire world. It is true that encouraging people constantly ends up stimulating people to try what they previously perceived as being impossible. Differences between Gender and cult ure In his presentations, he discussed that masculine is the term that relates to the opinion men showing empathy, sympathy and teamwork. On the other hand we have feminine characters which are considered as being less manly as compared to those individuals exhibiting masculine characters, which include high competition, very ambitious as well as very aggressive. For such men to reject their natural muscularity it is a must for them to make what Adler termed as neurotic compensation. Moreover, Adler felt that in the same way women having a desire of going beyond the so-called â€Å"gender definitions of a male dominated kind of society, have to undergo similar protests† (Stein, 2008).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Alfred Adlers individual psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Adler’s individual psychology, culture as well as its definition of gender duties is the main fact or in the development of neurosis. In most cases men under value women in those cultures that men dominate as a result their contributions and attributes affecting feminism are awarded much less values as compared to those attributed to masculine contributions. Looking at who differentiated cultures, it is true that things like lying are prominent in cultures that stress human relations while much less in societies that stresses on rules. One can say that individuals in cultures that stress human relations have higher chances of lying with the aim of protecting their relations, while those in cultures that that puts more emphasize on rules have few chances of lying as they need to follow the rules. At this point Adler â€Å"differentiates between cultures that are universally oriented (all rules apply to everyone) and particularly oriented; the nature of the relationship determines how someone will act in a particular situation† (Fiebert, 1997). Personality Development The th eory presents a comprehensive explanation of how personality develops. This is based on the fact that, the theory starts by giving an explanation of the environment in which a child is born. He describes it clearly as a world full of inferiority hence; the child starts as a weak and helpless individual. However, latter on the child learns how to overcome such deficiency by striving to become much superior as compared to those around him/her. Just like other psychologists, he calls this ‘striving for superiority’ which is perceived as being the force that drives all human minds, behavior patterns as well as emotions. Individuals with a stronger desire to be powerful, re-known business people or celebrated writers more often than note overcome their weaknesses thanks to a strong desire of doing so. However according to Adler such excessive inferiority feelings might also result to opposite impacts as well. He states that â€Å"As it becomes overwhelming and without the n eeded successes, we can develop an inferiority complex† (Slavik, King, 2007: 25). Such beliefs might leave individuals with a feeling that is incredibly much unimportant and deserving as compared to others; weak, without hope and motivation for superiority to strive which makes people complete.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The theory asserts that people in childhood are predisposed significantly by those around them which form the basis of personality developing as well as the ways through which they will interact with others around them. It is true that human beings have their own abilities of making their own choices and set their own future goals. This is what Alder calls striving towards a specified objective, upon which patterns of their behaviors and how they interpret things. The decisions which people make concerning their personalities at early stages of child development will always affect their personalities in future. The theory also explains the effects of parenting styles on personality development. There are two parenting styles that Adler in his theory identifies as having negative effects on child’s personality development in future. One of them is pampering style of parenting; this is a situation where parents overprotect their children. This entails provision of too much atte ntion as well as sheltering the child from negative realities of life. By the time the child attains adulthood, he/she will not have equipped himself/herself well in a manner that will allow him/her to deal with such life realities. As a result children who have undergone such parenting will always doubt their capabilities, decisions and skills. Such people will always be seeking others to replace the kind of safety that they used to enjoy by the time they were young. Another type of parenting identified by Adler in his Individual Psychology is neglect parenting. Shultz Shultz (2004:63) Stated that, [A neglected child is not protected at all from the world and is forced to face lifes struggles alone. This child may grow up to fear the world, have a strong sense of mistrust for others and she/he may have a difficult time forming intimate relationships] Apart from identifying parenting styles that might have negative impacts on the child’s personality development the, theory i dentifies the best parenting style as one which protects children from all evils in the society, but not sheltering children from such evils. This means that children would grow better when they see what is happening in the society. For instance it is not good for parents just to move directly to the school principals in case their children are being bullied in school but it will hold more water if such a child is taught ways of responding to such practices or even means of taking care while in school. Order of birth is another factor affecting personality development. The theory states that â€Å"the order in which you are born to a family inherently affects your personality. First born children who later have younger siblings may have it the worst† (Nadine Bruszewski, 2010: 34). This is based on the fact that firstborns usually receive much attention and pampering type of parenting till the day that a little brother or sister will be born. As a result they feel inferior he nce questioning their significance in the society, some try desperately to regain back the lost attention (Stein, 2008). The middle born are seen by Alder as individuals who never receive pampering and much attention. This explains the reasons as to why middle born children always strive to become superior to their elder ones. This is because they always have a very high superiority need. Just like their firstborns, lastborns experiences personality problems in adulthood. This is based on the fact that, as a child who has grown up knowing that he has very little powers in a family, he sees older ones as individuals with lots of freedom and much superior. Apart from that he also receives pampering and lots of protection from parents, elder brothers and sisters. This at the end makes him think that there is no way he can take any responsibility alone, hence always inferior to others. Changes in Personality over the Lifespan Adler’s individual psychology explains that personalit y changes shows growth as well as well as forward movement of life. At childhood individuals â€Å"start their lives smaller, weaker, and less socially and intellectually competent than the adults around them† (Hoffman, 1994). However they always have a desire of growing up to become adults with various capabilities. Such kids then acquire skills in a gradual manner to later demonstrate their competence. In addition, people get to gain confidence along with self esteem as they continue growing up. However, this force of natural strive might be held back in case personal picture has undergone degradation as a result of intellectual, physical and social development failures. Apart from failures such individuals might suffer from criticisms coming from parents, peers and teachers. In case individuals are moving on well, they also start feeling competent hence can afford thinking about others. In case the movement is not right, meaning that life is getting the best good of indivi duals, then the opposite is true, as more attention will be about oneself. This might make individuals feel what Adler called inferiority complex. â€Å"This scenario makes them â€Å"shy and timid, insecure, indecisive, cowardly, submissive, compliant, and so on† (Boeree, George, 1997). People experiencing inferiority complex lacks what Adler refers to as social interests. This factor makes them to be egocentric; as they will always focus on themselves along with everything they perceive being their deficiencies. These individuals strive with the desire to improve their knowledge and skills. When individuals start developing fictional goals they then start pulling themselves up as a result of their bootstraps. Apart from serving as the significant reason of orienting people in the world, it also acts as a compensatory defense which has the ability of creating positive feelings in the current feelings with the aim of eliminating inferiority feelings (Stein, 2008:152). Peopl e attaining this stage ends up, developing what Adler calls superiority complex. This behavior entails covering inferiority complex by acting in a manner that shows that such people are superior. Basically, from birth to death people strive with the aim of overcoming, expanding, growing, completing and looking for security. Individual Psychology in the Modern World This theory fits well in the modern society as it is still the model of personality; the foundation of methods used in the development of minds, as well as personal growth. It is true that in the current society, everyone is still a representative of what Adler called â€Å"a unity of personality and the individual then fashions that unity (Stein, 2008). In addition the theory has enabled practitioners to a wide variety of techniques like art and drama therapies, which have proved much effective in the process of relieving sufferings as well as promoting positive change along with empowerment. Looking at it from mind dev elopment perspective, stresses on social interactions and contributions has remained to be the most significant but constant factor. This is because the higher the social interests, the lesser the inferiority feelings that an individual might have (Rocky Libby, 2010). It should be realized that till now lifestyle formulation as well as consistent usage of collected data with the aim of demonstrating individuals to themselves, is a unique technique that was copied from Adler’s individual psychology theory and till now it has been preserved. As a result this has been effective in the process of interpreting individual’s behaviors and teaching life philosophy. Apart from that it has been of help in the process of prodding people into actions. It has also gained much application in the development of minds. Looking at the issue of holism which was proposed by South African Philosopher known as Smut, which was latter taken to heart by Adler, it has been of great significan ce in viewing an individual as whole other than seeing him as parts. Additionally he changed the idea of individual’s personality to style of life, which the modern world is calling lifestyle. This alteration holds more water in the current society as it means the way people life, deal with conflicting issues and their relation with each other. Things of the past have lost meaning in the present society since people no longer determine their future based on the past experiences. In the modern society it is not a must that if c and d happened then y and z must happen. However the modern society has copied Adler’s principle that motivation entails moving towards the future which is in line with Adler’s individual personality. The current society doesn’t depend on the past to drive their future (Hoffman, 1994). References Boeree, C. George, G. (1997). Alfred Adler. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology.6 (5), 245-256. Dreikurs, R.  (1935). An Introduction to Individual Psychology. London: Kegan Paul, Trench Trubner Co.Ltd. Fiebert, M. (1997). In and out of Freuds shadow: A chronology of Adlers relationship with Freud. Individual Psychology, 53(3), 241-269. Hoffman, E. (1994). The drive for self: Alfred Adler and the founding of individual psychology. Journal of Individual Psychology. 5(3), 54-73. Nadine E. Bruszewski, V. (2010). Applying individual psychology to a Universitys sustainability initiative. Individual Psychology, 64(3), 241-269. Rocky, G. Libby, L. (2010). Individual psychology and individual differences in psycho-physiology. The Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research, and Practice, 63(3), 2-17. Shelley, C. King, R. (2008). Community feeling and social interest: Adlerian parallels, synergy, and differences with the field of community psychology. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 18(1), 96-107. Shultz, D. Shultz, S. (2009). Theories of personality. Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Slav ik, S. King, R. (2007). Adlerian therapeutic strategy. The Canadian Journal of Adlerian Psychology, 37(1), 3-16. Stein, T. (2008). Adlers legacy: Past, present and future. Journal of Individual Psychology, 64 (1), 4–20.

How to Conjugate the Verb Venire in Italian

How to Conjugate the Verb Venire in Italian Some definitions of â€Å"venire† include: To comeTo arriveTo be descended fromTo come overTo occurTo turn outTo be the resultTo costTo come to What to know about â€Å"venire†: It’s an irregular third-conjugation verb, so it does not follow the typical -ire verb ending pattern.It’s an intransitive verb, which does not take a direct object.The infinito is â€Å"venire.†The participio passato is â€Å"venuto.†The gerund form is â€Å"venendo.†The past gerund form is â€Å"essendo venuto.† INDICATIVO/INDICATIVE Il presente io vengo noi veniamo tu vieni voi venite lui, lei, Lei viene essi, Loro vengono Ad esempio: Non mi viene in mente (la parola). - (The word) isn’t coming to mind. Il passato prossimo io sono venuto/a noi siamo venuti/e tu sei venuto/a voi siete venuti/e lui, lei, Lei venuto/a essi, Loro sono venuti/e Ad esempio: Sono venuto/a qua per dirti che ti amo. - I came here to tell you that I love you. L’imperfetto io venivo noi venivamo tu venivi voi venivate lui, lei, Lei veniva essi, Loro venivano Ad esempio: Ogni estate venivamo qua, questa campagna à ¨ il mio posto preferito. - Each summer we came here, this countryside is my favorite place. Il trapassato prossimo io ero venuto/a noi eravamo venuti/e tu eri venuto/a voi eravate venuti/e lui, lei, Lei era venuto/a essi, Loro erano venuti/e Esempi: Eri venuto/a per dirmi la verit, giusto? - You came here to tell me the truth, right? Il passato remoto io venni noi venimmo tu venisti voi veniste lui, lei, Lei venne essi, Loro vennero Ad esempio: Gli venne la voglia di trasferirsi in Italia.   - The desire to move to Italy came to him. Il trapassato remoto io fui venuto/a noi fummo venuti/e tu fosti venuto/a voi foste venuti/e lui, lei, Lei fu venuto/a essi, Loro furono venuti/e TIP: This tense is rarely used, so don’t worry too much about mastering it. You’ll find it in very sophisticated writing. Il futuro semplice io verr noi verremo tu verrai voi verrete lui, lei, Lei verr essi, Loro verranno Ad esempio: I figli verranno dopo cinque o sei anni di matrimonio, almeno spero cosà ¬!. - Kids will come after five or six years of marriage, at least I hope! Il futuro anteriore io sar venuto/a noi saremo venuti/e tu sarai venuto/a voi sarete venuti/e lui, lei, Lei sar venuto/a essi, Loro saranno venuti/e Ad esempio: Sar venuto da un’ottima scuola. - He must have come from a great school. CONGIUNTIVO/SUBJUNCTIVE Il presente che io venga che noi veniamo che tu venga che voi veniate che lui, lei, Lei venga che essi, Loro vengano Ad esempio: Penso che questo vino venga direttamente dalla Francia. - I think this wine comes directly from France. Il passato io sia venuto/a noi siamo venuti/e tu sia venuto/a voi siate venuti/e lui, lei, Lei sia venuto/a essi, Loro siano venuti/e Ad esempio: Mi chiedo se siano venuti in Italia per cercare la loro famiglia. - I wonder if they came to Italy to find their family. L’imperfetto io venissi noi venissimo tu venissi voi veniste lui, lei, Lei venisse essi, Loro venissero Ad esempio: Speravo che il mio ragazzo venisse in aeroporto a prendermi. - I hoped that my boyfriend would come to the airport to pick me up. Il trapassato prossimo io fossi venuto/a noi fossimo venuti/e tu fossi venuto/a voi foste venuti/e lui, lei, Lei fosse venuto/a essi, Loro fossero venuti/e Ad esempio: Vorrei che tu fossi venuto/a con me. - I wish you could have come with me. CONDIZIONALE/CONDITIONAL Il presente io verrei noi verremmo tu verresti voi verreste lui, lei, Lei verrebbe essi, Loro verrebbero Ad esempio: Verrei con voi, perà ² devo andare a scuola. - I would come with  you all, but I have to go to school. Il passato io sarei venuto/a noi saremmo venuti/e tu saresti venuto/a voi sareste venuti/e lui, lei, Lei sarebbe venuto/a essi, Loro sarebbero venuti/e Ad esempio: Avevo la febbre, altrimenti sarei venuto/a alla tua festa. - I had a fever, otherwise I would have come to your party.

Case Study (Prepare a professional public relations plan and two PR Essay

Case Study (Prepare a professional public relations plan and two PR tools. Based on a real case) - Essay Example In 2012, Tesla’s founder and CEO Elon Musk declared that in the year 2013, Tesla will start becoming profitable and central to this ambition is the launch of Tesla S car model (Tesla 2013). The Electric Vehicle market is estimated to steadily expand in the near future. The forecast is approximately 0.6 – 0.9 percent increase in the year 2015, 9 percent in 2020 and 22 percent in 2030 (JP Morgan 2010; Bloomberg 2010). The market expansion is partly attributed to US government support and the increase in the interest of the consumers in green technology. The U.S. Department of Energy, for instance, has introduced the Advanced Technology Vehicle Manufacturing Loan Program, has increased public charging stations and supported the drive to reduce battery pack costs (DOE 2010). Tesla, as a brand, is identified, with the luxury market and is viewed as a high technology automobile manufacturer in the business of selling EVs and electric powertrains. It sets itself apart from the competition by delivering environmentally-friendly/green/sustainable vehicles alongside the all the features of a luxury car such as design, materials, speed, handling, comfort and experience. The Tesla S car enjoys all these benefits. The Tesla S model is expected to compete with EV products that are just being developed by carmakers like Audi, BMW, Lexus and Mercedes and would also directly compete with hybrid cars are already in the market such as Toyota with its Prius car, which is the so-called â€Å"unofficial greenmobile of Toyota and the world† (Siler 2012). Again, it is important to note that Tesla S seeks the luxury market and, hence, could also go head to head with non-green luxury cars. All in all, Tesla S technology will be challenged by Audi and BMW: Audi has an ambitious plan to be the leading electric vehicles by 2020. It is integrated in its recent electric mobility strategy and underpins its recent plan to

The Construction of Guilt on Timothy Evans and 10 Rillington Place Essay

The Construction of Guilt on Timothy Evans and 10 Rillington Place - Essay Example Brief facts of the case Timothy Evans, an illiterate but an able driver with mental instability made an unprovoked visit to Merthyr Police Station on 30 November 1949 and voluntarily confessed to having disposed of his wife’s body down a drain outside his home at 10 Rillington Place, North London. He made two revelations: 1) that his pregnant wife died after he administered to her abortion pills he had collected from a stranger in a cafe in East Anglia. The Notting Hills Police in North London who rushed to Evan’s place did not find any dead body inside the drain manhole cover of which was so heavy that it had to be lifted by three policemen with great difficulty. 2) On further interrogation, Evans informed that his landlord/ co-tenant, Christie disposed of the dead body of his wife who died after an unsuccessful abortion on her performed by Christie himself as allegedly informed by Christie to Evans who was not an eyewitness to both the abortion incident as well as the disposal of the body. Contrary to this, Christie actually strangled both Evan’s wife and his baby daughter to death three weeks earlier to his (Evans’) confession, of which Evans had no knowledge. ...   (Gudjonsson, 2003) Evans later retracted his confession after his mother met with him at the prison and asked him for the reason to commit the murders. He told his mother â€Å"Christie done it. Ask him to come and see me. He is the only one who can help me now† (Kennedy, 1988 p.141). Unfortunately, prosecution managed to fix Christie's and his wife as its witnesses to give evidence against Evans. at the trial. Although Evans’ defense was that he did not murder them but Christie, his own defense lawyers considered his second statement in Wales as reliable. At the time it was not suspected that Christie lied that Evans’ wife died due to abortion. Evans’ second statement precluded any motive on the part of Christie to the murder of Evans’ wife. Although the medical evidence proved that Mrs. Evans had been sexually penetrated after her death, the defense did not have the hunch that why there could not have been a third party involvement in the rape for a husband need not have to rape or to have normal sexual intercourse after her after death. Further, the forensic report of the presence of spermatozoa in Mrs. Evan’s vagina did not prompt the Defense to have it tested for DNA to find its owner was whether Evans, Christie or anybody else. Bereft of any evidence in his favor, Evans was found guilty of the murder of his daughter by the jury which was not asked by the court to decide on Mrs. Evans’ death.

Sympathy for macbeth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Sympathy for macbeth - Essay Example Despite his actions, Shakespeare encourages sympathy for Macbeth throughout the play. At first, Macbeth is displayed as a hero. However, this image changes drastically when he begins to thirst for power. Macbeth is a hero among his friends and soldiers for his loyalty and bravery to Scotland. He respects his country and does not want to interfere with his friends and king; however, greed begins to impede on Macbeth’s loyalty to his motherland. He struggles with an appropriate way to become the leader of his country. This is shown when he states: â€Å"If chance will have me king, why chance may crown me without my stir† (1.3.142-143). Although Macbeth greatly desires to become king, his decision to not actively seek this dream encourages sympathy from the reader. These thoughts show that Macbeth still has good moral beliefs; this allows for hope that he will remain a hero. Additionally, Macbeth knows that he does not have a chance for the throne while the king lives. As Macbeth thinks of himself as a loyal subject and Duncan as a good lea der, he does not want evil thoughts to overpower his loyalty. Macbeth begins with hope to one day rule his country. To achieve this, he decides that he must become king. Macbeth realizes that if he does not attempt to become king, then it will not happen. This thinking is demonstrated with his statement: â€Å"That is a step on which I must fall down, or else o’erleap, for in my way it lies† (1.4.49-50). Macbeth recognizes the enormity of this decision and that he must act upon his murderous thoughts to fulfill his destiny. His ambition to become king overrides his loyalty to his country and king. Because of this, Macbeth develops a plan to overthrow Duncan and rule in his place. This dilemma ensures that the reader feels sorry for Macbeth, as he struggles between remaining loyal and his obsession for power.  Macbeth struggles to stick to his

Relationship Between Entrepreneur Human Capital and HR

Relationship Between Entrepreneur Human Capital and HR 1. Introduction 1.2 The research topic In modern economies the majority of firms are small firms, and these firms make a considerable contribution to the development of the socio-economic and political infrastructure (Matlay, 2002). Unfortunately, small firms also have a high failure rate. Fifty to eighty percent fail during the first five years of existence (Baumback, 1988). One of the main reasons for this high failure rate appears to be a lack of emphasis on the management of human resources in small firms (McEvoy, 1984). A range of studies indicate that effective management of human resources is one of the most critical challenges small firms face (e.g., Mazzarol, 2003; Deshpande and Golhar, 1994; Marlow and Patton, 1993; Hornsby and Kuratko, 1990). Especially as it relates to the management of HR issues. Managerial incompetence in handling HR issues is a major source of small firm failure (Dun and Bradstreet, 2001; Baron, 2003; Hornsby and Kuratko, 2003), and the way entrepreneurs handle HR issues in an early stage severely impacts downstream success of business (Cardon and Stevens, 2004). However, Cardon and Stevens (2004) did a literature review on HRM in small and emerging firms and concluded that despite the importance of HR issues to small and emerging firms our understanding about these issues is limited. While we have begun to understand when small firms experience varying levels of HR issues (e.g., Kotter and Sathe, 1978; Rutherford et al, 2003), and what these issues are (e.g., Horsnby and Kuratko, 2003), literature lacks much of the theory necessary to understand the role the entrepreneur plays with regard to HR issues in small firms. Given that entrepreneurs play a dominant role in determining how human resources are managed in small firms (Matlay, 2002; Klaas and Klimchak, 2006), it is likely that certain personal characteristics of entrepreneurs play a more significant role in determining HR issues in small firms. Surprisingly, this relationship has received very little attention in literature. This research study will address this gap in literature by focusing on the relationship between human capital characteristics of the entrepreneur and HR issues in small firms. Particularly, the relationship between prior education and experience of the entrepreneur and HR issues in small firms. Education and experience are generally regarded as key factors influencing small firm survival and development (Storey, 1994), and a range of studies show they are positively related to small firm performance (e.g., XXX). Given that HR issues are the main cause of small firm failure (Dun and Bradstreet, 2001; Baron, 2003; Hornsby and Kuratko, 2003), and that they have a strong negative effect on small firm performance (Cardon and Stevens, 2004), this could imply that somehow education and experience are related to HR issues in small firms. Since we do not know if that is the case, this research study will make a first attempt at getting a better understanding about this relationship. 1.3 The research objective According to Saunders et al. (2003, p.96-98) a research study can be done either to explore, describe or explain a particular phenomenon. They argue that exploratory research is done to seek new insight into a phenomenon, to ask questions and to approach a phenomenon in a new way, that descriptive research is done to get an accurate description of events, situations or persons, and that explanatory research is done to explain the cause and effect relationship between given variables. Malhotra (1996, p.99) argues that in some cases more than one research type (exploratory, descriptive or explanatory) is used in a single study to achieve the objectives. This research study will be of an exploratory nature, as there have been few (if any) attempts in literature at getting a better understanding about the relationship between human capital of the entrepreneur and HR issues in small firms. The objective of this research study is to more precisely define the variables that are in play in this relationship, by making a very first attempt at developing a conceptual framework linking human capital characteristics (education and experience) of the entrepreneur to HR issues in small firms. 1.4 Contribution to the literature The contribution of this research study to the literature is threefold. First, by focusing on HRM in small firms, this research study focuses on a neglected group of firms and responds to several appeals for more research at the intersection of the human resource management and entrepreneurship fields (e.g., Barret and Mayson, 2006; Baron, 2003; Katz et al, 2000; Heneman and Tansky, 2000). Second, by looking at the role human capital of the entrepreneur plays in determining HR issues in small firms, this research study offers a new and different perspective on HR issues in small firms. Last, by making a very first attempt at developing a conceptual framework linking human capital of the entrepreneur to HR issues in small firms, this research study provides a foundation and stimulus for future research into the links between human capital of the entrepreneur and HR issues in small firms. 1.5 Key concepts Bygrave and Hofer (1991, p. 15) argue that â€Å"good science has to begin with good definitions†, and Marlow (2006) states that â€Å"if basic concepts are not clarified or defined, then it becomes extremely difficult to develop coherent and comparable research endeavors that build understanding of a particular field of study†. Therefore key concepts will briefly be explained and defined in order to make sure that the reader fully understands the topics under investigation in this research study. Small firms Storey (1994, p.8) states: â€Å"there is no single, uniformly acceptable, definition of a small firm†, and defining the small firm seems to be complex and somewhat problematic (Wilkinson, 1999). First, there is the issue of size. There is no consensus as to what is actually meant by â€Å"small† with regard to the number of employees in this category. In literature the number of employees in firms classified as small range anywhere from 1 to 500 employees depending upon the study. The same problem exists with various statistical agencies across the world. CBS (Dutch statistics) defines firms having less than 100 employees as small, whereas in the European union Eurostat uses a threshold of 250 employees, and the Small Business Administration in the United States even defines firms with having less than 500 employees as small (Flanagan and Deshpande, 1996). Second, there is also the issue of heterogeneity. Wilkinson (1999) argues that the danger of defining small firms lies in the assumption that there is a homogenous small firm sector and that all small firms within it have similar characteristics. He argues that while size may be a factor, it alone is not sufficient to explain patterns of employment relations, because a variety of influences (both internal and external) explain behavior (Wilkinson, 1999). This is in line with the view of Hornsby and Kuratko (2006). They argue that it is not a case of small versus large firms, as there are small established firms, small start-up firms, and small high growth firms, and these firms vary in ownership based on family ownership, ownership by founder, and some type of privately held stock ownership. Cardon and Stevens (2004) argue that co-joining small firms all into one overall category is problematic as the management needs of established and emerging firms, or firms with 1, 10, 50, 250, a nd 500 employees are significantly different from each other. This makes summarizing and providing generalizations of research findings in literature on small firms somewhat problematic. However, despite the fact that there is no uniformity of approach to defining the small firm, for this research study a practical definition of a small firm is needed. Therefore a small firm is defined as: â€Å"a privately held firm with fewer than 100 employees in which the entrepreneur is responsible for the day-to-day management and decision making in the firm†. Entrepreneur There is an ongoing debate in literature about the differences and similarities between owner-managers and entrepreneurs. According to Carland et al. (1984) the critical factor that distinguishes entrepreneurs from owner-managers is innovation. They argue that entrepreneurs are characterized by a preference for creating activity, manifested by some innovative combination of resources for profit, and that owner-managers establish and manage a business for the principal purpose of furthering personal goals. In line with this Freel and Robson (2004) state that entrepreneurs initiate change with the aim of challenging the status quo whilst maximizing profit and generating new employment, and that owner-managers focus on firm durability and sustainability, limiting operational reach of the firm, either because of market constraints or by personal choice (Freel and Robson, 2004 as cited in Marlow, 2006). However, this research study will make no distinction between an â€Å"owner-manager† or an â€Å"entrepreneur†. The most important characteristic for this research study is the dominant role the individual plays in the firm, and not whether the individual is engaged in innovative activities or not. Given that both terms represent an individual generally solely responsible for the day-to-day management and decision making in the firm (Cooper et al, 1994), this research study will treat them the same, but uses the term ‘entrepreneur to address this individual. This research study defines the entrepreneur as: â€Å"an individual who independently owns a small firm and is responsible for the day-to-day management and decision making in the firm†. Human capital Human capital can be explained as the skills and knowledge gained by a worker through education and experience. Human capital theory (Becker, 1964) is based on the idea that people acquire individual resources to increase or enhance their productivity, and that these acquisitions are related to prior education or training, as well as prior work experiences (Brush and Manolova, 2004). In this research study the focus is on human capital of the entrepreneur and how it influences the day-to-day management and decision making in the firm. Education In this research study education is defined as: â€Å"formal college education, together with received specialized training†. Training is defined as: â€Å"†¦the process by which managers acquire the knowledge and skills related to their work requirements by formal, structured or guided means† (Deloitte, Haskins, and Sells, 1989, p.3). Experience According to Lee and Tsang (2001) experience consists of three main components; entrepreneurial, industrial and managerial. Entrepreneurial experience refers to â€Å"the number of previous new venture involvements and the level of the management role played in such ventures† (Stuart and Abetti, 1990, p. 151 as cited in Lee and Tsang, 2001). Industrial experience refers to experience in the industry the firm is in, and managerial experience is the total experience in management regardless of the industry (Lee and Tsang, 2001). However, for this research study experience will not be divided into three components. In this research study experience is defined as: â€Å"accumulated knowledge of practical matters in the past† (Wikipedia). Human resource management (HRM) Storey (2001) states there is considerable confusion among researchers whether HRM â€Å"†¦is a generic term, simply denoting any approach to employment management†¦(or) as one specific and arguably minority form of approach to employment management† (Storey, 2001 as cited in Marlow, 2006). This confusion becomes clear from the many explanations and definitions of HRM in literature. For example, Bratton and Gold define HRM as â€Å"the part of the management process that specializes in the management of people in work organizations. HRM emphasizes that employees are critical to achieving sustainable competitive advantage, that human resources practices need to be integrated with the corporate strategy, and that human resource specialists help organizational controllers to meet both efficiency and equity objectives† (Bratton and Gold, 1999). Armstrong defines HRM as â€Å" the strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organizations most valued as sets the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the business† (Armstrong, 2006). Boselie states HRM â€Å"involves management decisions related to policies and practices which together shape the employment relationship and are aimed at achieving individual, organizational, and societal goals† (Boselie, 2002). And last, Schermerhorn (2001) defines HRM as â€Å"the process of attracting, developing, and maintaining a talented and energetic workforce to support organizational mission, objectives, and strategies†. In this research study HRM is considered a generic term, simply denoting any approach to the management of employees, and therefore a practical definition of human resource management is needed. Schermerhorns definition of HRM is the most practical, and fits best with the informal, flexible, and ad hoc approaches associated with HRM in small firms. Therefore HRM is defined as: â€Å"the process of attracting, developing, and maintaining a talented and energetic workforce to support organizational mission, objectives, and strategies† (Schermerhorn, 2001, p2400). HRM activities and HRM issues Rutherford et al. ( 2003) argue that in literature the distinction between HRM issues and activities is not always clear. Therefore it is important to define what is meant by HRM issues and what is meant by HRM activities. Rutherford et al. (2003) define HRM issues as â€Å"people-related issues or concerns perceived by the entrepreneur or managers in the firm† and HRM activities as â€Å"specific human resource management practices used by the firm†. They explain the difference by saying: â€Å"HRM activities are (formal) practices that are put in place to deal with HRM issues† (Rutherford et al, 2003). Guest et al. (2004) make a further distinction within HRM activities between HR practices and HR techniques. They argue that for every HR practice (e.g., â€Å"recruitment†), there are several different techniques (e.g., â€Å"newspaper ads†, â€Å"online ads†, â€Å"head hunters† etc.), or for example (e.g., â€Å"selection†), and (e.g., â€Å"interviews†, â€Å"assessment centers† etc.). This research study follows the definitions of HRM activities and issues by Rutherford et al. (2003), and acknowledges the distinction within HRM activities between HR practices and HR techniques as described by Guest et al. (2004). 1.5 Main research question and sub questions In order to be able to complete the research objective as stated in paragraph 1.3, the main research question and several sub questions have been formulated. The main research question states: How is human capital of the entrepreneur related to HR issues in small firms? In order to be able to answer the main research question, several sub questions have been formulated: How do HR practices and techniques differ between entrepreneurs with varying levels of human capital? How do HR issues differ between entrepreneurs with varying levels of human capital? How does the perceived importance of HRM and HRM issues differ between entrepreneurs with varying levels of human capital? 1.6 Conceptual model Although this is an exploratory research study, some variables have been identified in literature that could play a significant role in explaining the relationship between human capital of the entrepreneur and HR issues in small firms. These variables are shown in this preliminary conceptual model This research study builds upon ‘upper echelon theory and ‘human capital theory to explore the relationship between human capital characteristics of the entrepreneur and HRM issues in small firms. Upper echelon theory (Hambrick and Mayson, 1984) states that everything that goes on in a firm is a reflection of its top managers. It found that the nature of managerial processes and organizational outcomes are partially predicted by managerial background characteristics of its top managers. While originally applied to large firms, this theory seems to be even more applicable to small firms, given that small firms are generally build around the entrepreneur who is often primarily responsible for management and decision-making in small firms (Cooper et al, 1994). Therefore the entrepreneur can be seen as the upper echelon in small firms. Human capital theory (Becker, 1964) states that people acquire individual resources to increase or enhance their productivity, and that these acquisitions are related to prior education or training, as well as prior work experiences (Brush and Manolova, 2004). Cooper et al. (1994) argue that education is presumably related to knowledge, skills, problem-solving ability, discipline, motivation, and self-confidence, and it enables owner-managers to cope with problems and thereby be more successful. In line with this Lee and Tsang (2001) argue that in general education has a positive effect on the growth of the firm, because education equips an individual with the analytical and technical skills essential to managing a business. Furthermore, according to Cooper et al. (1994) owner-managers who have started or managed a firm prior to launching the current firm would perform better. They argue that prior experience would better prepare them for the wide variety of problems confronting new firms. Within small firms human capital theory is concerned with the knowledge and capabilities of entrepreneurs acquired through education and experience, which influences the way these firms are managed. With regard to HRM in small firm, prior studies indicat e that human capital characteristics impact the nature of HR practices and techniques in small firms (e.g., Mazzarol, 2003; Maes et al, 2004; De Winne and Sels, 2006). Link A B The presumed direct link between human capital and HRM issues is based on findings by Tocher and Rutherford (2009). They found that entrepreneurs with more human capital (higher educated and experienced) were more likely to perceive HRM issues as their firms most critical concern. Whether these firms actually experienced HRM issues or that it was only the perception of the entrepreneur remains unclear. However, given that results in this research study come from the individual lived experiences of entrepreneurs, their perception of HRM issues in their firm must be regarded as ‘the truth, and therefore a direct link might exist. Link A B C Based on the link A B, it might be the case that entrepreneurs perceive that they have a lot of HRM issues, and that as a result they implement more HRM practices and techniques (reactive). Link A C B There is evidence that human capital characteristics of the entrepreneur impacts the nature of HR policy and practice within small firms (Mazzarol, 2003; Maes et al, 2004; De Winne and Sels, 2006). It might also be expected that human capital equips entrepreneurs with knowledge about a range of HRM practices and techniques, which they will put in place in order to avoid or overcome HRM issues. It is expected that more use of HRM practices and techniques leads to less HRM issues. Link A D C B It is expected that more human capital makes entrepreneurs more aware of the value and importance of HRM and HRM issues to small firms. If entrepreneurs acknowledge the importance of both HRM and HRM issues to their firm, it is expected that they will put more emphasis on HRM and implement a range of HRM practices and techniques pro-active rather than reactive in order to avoid HRM issues. This is expected to lead to less HRM issues. 1.7 Methodology This exploratory research study uses a two-tailed multiple case study method design. Cases were divided into two groups of extremes. One group with two cases of highly educated and experienced entrepreneurs, and one group with two cases of low educated entrepreneurs with limited or no experience. This two-tailed multiple-case study method makes it possible to use direct replication of findings within the two groups, and also to find possible contrasting situations between the two groups. For this research study interviews are chosen to acquire case study evidence, following the general interview approach by Patton (2002). In this approach topics and issues to be covered are specified in advance in an outline form, and the interviewer decides the sequence and wording of questions in the course of the interview. For this research study I have taken several steps before I started doing case studies in order to be well prepared. The steps taken were: Extensive literature review on the topics under investigation Two interviews with entrepreneurship experts to get a better understanding about the research topics from a practitioner point of view The design of a case study protocol Conducting a pilot case study A total of four entrepreneurs (two in each group of extremes) actively involved in running their business were selected via non-probability sampling using the REACH database. The entrepreneurs were first contacted via a generic email, and later after being selected by telephone to make the appointment. The interviews were held face-to-face at the offices of the entrepreneurs, at convenient times, in silent and comfortable rooms. The interviews were tape recorded. In order to be able to triangulate data, I also interviewed an expert on human resource management and human resource issues in small firms. The interview was held in exactly the same way as with the entrepreneurs. 1.8 Thesis outline In order to be able to answer the main research question, the sub questions, and to meet the objective of this research study, this research study will first look at relevant literature and theories in chapter two. In chapter three the methodology used in this research study will be presented and explained. Chapter four shows the results and within case analyses of the four case studies and of the interview with the expert. In chapter five these results will be analyzed using cross case analyses. And finally chapter 6 will contain the conclusion, limitations, and implications of this research study 2. literature review There is an abundance of literature on HRM in general. Therefore it would be impossible to do a complete literature review on HRM within the time constraints given for this research study. Since the real issue discussed in this research study is the relationship between human capital of the entrepreneur and HR issues in small firms, only prior research that is relevant from this standpoint will be discussed. It must be noted that due to definitional problems in literature on both small firms and HRM, providing generalizations of research findings is somewhat problematic. However, given that all researchers in the field are confronted with these definitional problems, I follow the approach of DAmboise and Muldowney (1988). They reviewed all studies and papers in which the author â€Å"claimed† to be writing about small firms or any variation thereof (e.g., entrepreneurial firm, SME). In this review of the literature, I do the same. 2.1 HRM in small firms While there is an abundance of literature on HRM, the majority is based on HRM in large firms (Wilkinson, 1999). Heneman et al. (2000) reviewed over 400 articles on HRM and found that between 1984 and 1999 only129 empirical studies focused specifically on HRM in smaller firms. Only 17 of these studies applied quantitative methods to analyze results. According to them â€Å"the literature appears to be rich in prescriptions, limited in sound descriptive surveys, and sparse in analytical research†. Similarly, Hornsby and Kuratko (2003) found that â€Å"in spite of the considerable volume and diversity of HRM research, relatively little is understood regarding the HRM-related needs, practices, behaviors, and outcomes of smaller ventures†. More recently, DeKok and Den Hartog (2006) stated that even though research on HRM in small firms has increased lately, the majority of researchers still tends to ignore small firms. Heneman et al. (2000) argue that â€Å"the deficiency of research regarding HRM in small firms is problematic for theory, research, and practice†. When looking at literature on HRM in small firms, it seems that for long it has polarized into the ‘small is beautiful or ‘bleak house perspective (Wilkinson, 1999). According to Wilkinson (1999) the ‘small is beautiful scenario facilitates close and harmonious working relationships with good communication, greater flexibility, and low levels of conflict, and in the ‘bleak house scenario firms are dictatorially run with employees suffering from poor working conditions (Wilkinson, 1999). However, according to Ram (1991, as cited in Wilkinson, 1999) â€Å"workplace relations in SMEs may be ‘complex, informal and contradictory rather than simply either harmonious or autocratic†. Indeed, by now we know that â€Å"small firms are complex, varied, and influenced by a range of factors† (Loan-Clarke et al. 1999; Carrol et al. 1999; Wagar, 1998; Mazzarol, 2003, as cited in Kotey and Sheridan, 2004). A number of studies indicate that small firms are characterized by informal, flexible and ad hoc approaches to HRM. Barret et al. (2007) explain this by saying: â€Å"the practices used to recruit, select, manage and appraise employees performance are not written down (for example, a list of skills and qualifications for each job), regularly applied (for example, yearly performance reviews) or guaranteed they take place (for example, employer sponsored training)†. For example, Hornsby and Kuratko (1990) studied 247 smaller firms in order to establish the progress in developing HRM practices and policies in small firms. They found that firms with less than 50 employees had very little formal HRM practices in place, and similar HRM practices were found in firms with 50 to 100 employees and firms with 100 to 150 employees. A little over a decade later Hornsby and Kuratko (2003) did a replication and an extension of their 1990 study and found evidence that suggests that human reso urce management practices in small firms in all three size categories has generally stagnated and even regressed in some areas over the decade. Similarly, Kotey and Slade (2005) conducted a survey of 371 small growing firms in Australia in order to establish the rate of adoption of formal HRM practices with increasing firm size. Their results showed that micro and small firms are indeed characterized by informal HRM practices, but the adoption of formal HRM practices increased with firm size with a move toward formal practices early in the growth process. In contrast, there are also studies showing there is a greater level of sophistication of HRM practices in small firms than would be expected. However, it must be noted that these results are often derived from case studies with very small samples. For example, De Kok and Uhlaner (2001) studied 16 firms with between 10 and 41 employees and found that some of these firms used HRM practices that were more formal than expected. In line with this Duberley and Walley (1995) did a comparative case-study with sixteen organizations in the United Kingdom to study the extent to which HRM has been adopted in small firms. Although the majority of the studied firms (13) did not adopt a strategic approach towards HRM with an integrated set of policies related to corporate strategy, they found that three of the firms did indeed approximate quite closely to the model of strategic HRM. Barret et al. (2007) state that while an informal and ad hoc approach to HRM may work for some small firms, in periods of growth the sustainability of that approach can be problematic. In line with this Arthur (1995) states that if growth is to be sustained, formal HRM practices and policies are necessary to cope with the increasing complexity as a result of greater number of employees. A study by Kotey and Slade (2005) on the rate of adoption of formal human resource management practices in 371 small growing firms in Australia indicated a move toward hierarchical structures, an increase in documentation, and more administrative processes as the firm grew. Similar results were found by Barret and Mayson (2007) when they conducted a survey of 600 small Australian firms. Their analysis showed that growth-oriented small firms were more likely to use formal HRM practices than non-growth small firms. Roberts, Sawbridge, and Bamber (1992, as cited in Wilkinson, 1999) explain this by saying : â€Å"when a firm employs more than 20 staff, the limits of informality become apparent: informal networks of recruitment dry up; informal styles of management communication are stretched; and ad hoc responses to personnel issues create problems†. In line with this Jennings and Beaver (1997, as cited in Bartram, 2005) state that when the entrepreneur becomes over-extended because the firm has grown above a certain size, the management of human resources needs to be professionalized and delegated. However, there are also researchers like Wilkinson (1999) and Welbourne and Cyr (1999) who state that putting an emphasis on formal rules and procedures in small firms is outdated, because entrepreneurs operate in an environment where they have to make rapid decisions in order to be able to respond to market changes. They argue that ‘bureaucratic HRM may reduce flexibility and increase firm inertia. Similarly, Hill and Stewart (1999, as cited in De Kok, 2003) argue that small firms should be more flexible and informal to be able to cope with higher levels of environmental uncertainty. 2.2 HRM activities in small firms According to Barret and Mayson (2007) the most commonly found HRM activities in small firms reflect operational needs and pragmatic concerns. For example, record keeping, staffing activities (recruitment and selection), and to a lesser extent motivation and retention activities (compensation and reward practices). Cassel et al. (2002) conducted an empirical study on HRM activities in small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), and found that there is a considerable diversity amongst SMEs in relation to their use of HR practices and techniques. They stated it appeared that â€Å"key managers within SMEs, rather than taking a coherent, strategy based approach to the implementation of HRM, are taking a more ‘pick and mix contingency approach†. â€Å"Which practices are chosen, and the extent to which they are used and formalized is based on a number of characteristics about the SME and the current business climate within which they find themselves† (Cassel et. Al, 200 2). Although there is no generally excepted list of HR practices and techniques used by smaller firms, attempts have been made to identify practices and techniques commonly used in smaller firms. For example, McEvoy (1984) studied small business personnel practices in 84 small businesses with 25 to 250 employees located near a Midwest metropolitan area. A thirty-six item questionnaire was administered and filled in by an interviewer interviewing the person responsible for HRM in the firm. The questions focused on the usage of HRM practices like HRM structures, policy and planning, staffing, performance evaluation, employee motivation, job satisfaction and turnover, and compensation and unionization. Important findings relevant for this research study are that when firms reached an average of 73 employees the management of human resources shifted from one person (often the entrepreneur) to a newly formed separate personnel department. About 80% of the firms sampled used written personnel